Economic isolation of commodity producers. Commodity production, the conditions for its occurrence. Money as a developed form of commodity-money relations
Commodity production defined as a type of organization of social production, in which economic relations between people are manifested through the market, the purchase and sale of the products of their labor.
The main features of commercial production are:
1) social division of labor;
2) economic isolation of business entities;
3) production of a product for sale, and not for own consumption;
4) exchange of goods;
5) equivalence of exchange.
Commodity production has common features characteristic of different historical eras. At the same time, in each socio-economic formation, it acquires special, specifically historical features and depends on the prevailing mode of production, the form of ownership and the entire system of production relations in a given society.
By itself, commodity production does not give rise to a single mode of production, so it would be wrong to assert that commodity production gives rise to capitalism. It was not commodity production that led to the domination of capitalism (although it played a large role in the disintegration of the feudal system), but, on the contrary, the capitalist mode of production made commodity production all-encompassing. It becomes such only under capitalism, when the means of production are capital and labor is a commodity.
The main condition for the emergence and existence of commodity production is the social division of labor. The social division of labor is the isolation of various types of labor activity, which contributed to an increase in labor productivity and created the material prerequisites for regular exchange. With the development of society, new branches of production appear, due to which the social division of labor deepens. The latter leads to the fact that farms specializing in the production of any product cannot fully use it for their needs and, at the same time, satisfy all their needs with it. This necessitates exchange, and with it, commodity production.
However, for the emergence of commodity production, the social division of labor is not enough. The social division of labor also existed in the primitive community. Some made tools of labor, others - household items, but the products of their labor were not exchanged (sold). All products were owned by the community. Another thing is when it comes to the relationship between different communities. With the advent of private property and the surplus product produced in excess of what is necessary to support the life of producers, their isolation has increased, the possibilities for the development of commodity production have increased and the sphere of commodity-money relations has expanded. Thus, the reason for the emergence of commodity production is the economic isolation of producers. Economic isolation in relation to the commodity economy presupposes the presence of a strongly expressed economic interest of an economic entity (physical or legal entity), freedom of choice, or economic activity, ownership of the manufactured product, certain obligations to society, the state and partners. Communities, individuals, cooperatives, and the state can be different, separate owners of the means of production and products. Understanding the economic isolation of commodity producers is important for assessing modern economic processes, the transition to market relations, part of which is to strengthen the economic independence of enterprises (associations).
The economic isolation of producers is such a state of theirs that allows them to relatively freely dispose of the products they produce, alienate them, own them and use them at their own discretion, i.e. to be its owner. Consequently, economic isolation is inseparable from ownership of the means of production and manufactured products. Since the forms of ownership are diverse, they are different in their socio-economic nature and economic isolation. There is no economic isolation in general, just as there is no property in general, but there is a historically determined form of property, which determines the specific historical nature of economic isolation.
The decomposition of natural production, the emergence and strengthening of commodity production marked economic progress. Thanks to the commodity-market mechanism, the productive forces have advanced in their development much further than in all previous history.
Commodity production is highly adaptable to different economic systems. In each of them, it serves the implementation of those forms of ownership that are characteristic of them.
Types of commodity production. The history of society knows two main types of commodity production: simple and large-scale capitalist. Simple commodity production is the economy of peasants and artisans based on private property and on their own labor. Capitalist commodity production is based on wage labor.
Simple and capitalist commodity production have common features and differences. Their common features are private ownership of the means of production, the spontaneous nature of development, competition, products of production intended for the market. The differences between them are as follows: in simple commodity production, the means of production belong to the producers themselves; in capitalist commodity production, they are owned by the entrepreneur. The first is based on personal labor, the second on wage labor; in the first case, the product belongs to the manufacturer, in the second - to the entrepreneur; in the first case, labor is not a commodity, and in the second, it is a commodity; in the first, commodity production was not a universal form of production, in the second, it was universal; in the first case, the goal is to meet the needs of the manufacturer, in the second, to make a profit; in the first, goods are the products of labor, in the second, the products of capital; simple commodity production is based on backward technology, capitalist production on advanced machine technology.
The common features and differences between simple and developed capitalist commodity production predetermine the nature of the small producer: on the one hand, he acts as a worker, and on the other, as an owner. This is important for determining the laws governing the development of small-scale commodity production, which prevails in developing countries. This duality manifests itself in the period of revolutionary transformations of society.
Entrepreneurship - an initiative, independent economic activity of citizens and their associations can also be considered a typical model of commodity production. Entrepreneurship can include any type of production activity, as well as commercial intermediation, trade and procurement, innovation, consulting activities, transactions with securities... One of its leading forms is private entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship can be carried out both by individuals and by an association of citizens and the state.
In the economic literature, there are also such varieties, models of commodity, or market, economy: commodity economy of free competition, commodity economy of the organized market, planning-directive and planning-normative models. In the first model, there is no monopoly, there is free competition; the second is characterized by the presence of various forms of economic monopoly and state regulation; the third is a regulated economy based on a directive plan; the fourth - on the basis of planned standards.
In historical retrospect, the following models of commodity economy are distinguished: commodity economies, the economic orientation of which was entirely determined by the will of the state; commodity farms completely based on private property, independent of the state; commodity farms based on the interaction of private or collective property with the state.
Historically, the first form of economic organization was subsistence farming. Subsistence farming is understood as an organization in which all goods are produced within the farm for their own consumption. It is almost not connected with other manufacturers, does not participate in the exchange process. The subsequent development of social production, the division of labor led to the development of exchange and the domination of a commodity economy.
Under commodity economy the organization of social production is understood in which goods are produced by specialized, isolated producers and enter consumption through exchange in the market. This implies two conditions for the emergence of a commodity economy and the development of commodity-money relations. The first condition is the social division of labor. It is necessary, but not sufficient for the emergence of commodity relations. Only when the second condition arises - the economic separation of producers, does the product of labor inevitably take on a commodity form. Economic isolation allows producers to relatively freely dispose of the produced products at their own discretion, i.e. be the owner of it. Consequently, economic isolation is inextricably linked with the relationship of ownership of the means of production and the product. Where there are different owners, the connection between them is carried out in a commodity form. That is why the emergence of private property, which led to the economic isolation of producers, was the decisive condition for the emergence of commodity production. This condition remains in force and significance in the conditions of the transition to a market economy in our country.
Product is a product of labor intended for exchange. But in order to become a commodity, a product must have two properties: value and use value. The ability to satisfy a public need, to be useful to people is use value. A person always works for the sake of satisfying needs, therefore use value is an eternal category, but it also develops and changes. As use values, all commodities are different, and in order to exchange one thing for another, it is necessary that they have a common feature - value.
The question of the cost of a product is the most difficult, since the cost is hidden in the product. If the use value is visible (you can always determine what need this or that thing satisfies), then in order to understand the essence of value, you must first turn to exchange value, those. the ability of a commodity to be exchanged for another in certain proportions. Goods are exchanged primarily because they have different use values. No one will change an ax for the same ax or a loaf of black bread for the same loaf, but you can change an ax for bread. But why does one ax change for one loaf of bread, and not two, three, half? Behind the exchange proportions are hidden cost, those. labor costs of producers - the costs of their physical and mental energy for the production of goods. As use-values, all goods are qualitatively different, as values they are homogeneous. Manufacturers, when exchanging their goods, compare different types of labor (carpenter, blacksmith, tailor, etc.). Consequently, the value of a commodity expresses certain connections, relations between producers, i.e. value is a production relation.
The dual character of the commodity is due to the dual character of the labor that creates the commodity. This is one of the most important questions in labor theory of value. The labor of each commodity producer is expressed in a concrete form; it is not just labor, but the labor of a turner, baker, blacksmith, shoemaker, etc. As a result of concrete labor, certain things are obtained: a shoemaker makes shoes, a tailor - clothes, a blacksmith - forged metal products, etc. specific labor creates a specific use value.
In the process of concrete labor, each producer spends his strength, his physical and mental energy. These costs of human energy represent abstract labor. "Abstract" means abstract, i.e. labor abstracted from a concrete form. Abstract labor, characterizing the energy consumption of a producer for the production of a commodity, creates the value of a given commodity, which means that price can be defined as abstract labor embodied in a commodity.
The duality of labor is expressed not only in the fact that it is concrete and abstract, but also in the fact that it is both private and social. The specific labor of the manufacturer in commodity production is private labor, since it is spent on the basis of the interests of the producer, who produces what he can produce, and only what brings him a benefit in the market. But at the same time, this work and public, because the product is made for the market, to meet the needs of other people. But this side of labor is hidden, it manifests itself only in the market: if a product is purchased, it means that society really needs it. This, as it were, confirms the social nature of the expended forces and energy (i.e., the costs of abstract labor). If the goods were not purchased, then labor costs for its production were not needed, this work was not public.
The cost of the goods is determined labor costs; labor, in turn, can be measured in time. But the amount of labor or labor time required to produce a product may be different for different producers under the influence of different conditions: technical equipment workplace, qualifications, employee experience, etc. Therefore, the labor time required for the production of a product from an individual manufacturer is individual working hours, it determines the individual value of a product. In the market, goods are exchanged not at individual costs, but at socially necessary ones, i.e. at social cost. Under socially necessary time means the time for the production of a given commodity under socially normal working conditions and with average skill and intensity of labor.
So, the value of a commodity is abstract social labor embodied in it, and value as public attitude manifests itself only in exchange, in its concrete form - exchange value. These are the foundations of one of the first scientific theories of value - the labor theory of value. It was developed by Marx, although the foundations were laid by Smith and Ricardo, and served as the basis for Marxist economic doctrine.
But economic theory has proved, and life has confirmed that the labor theory of value is far from ideal. Attempts to apply it in practice in our country have proved that the determination of cost and prices only by costs leads to the formation of a cost mechanism in national economy and production turns into production for the sake of production, since it becomes profitable to increase the cost of producing goods. In addition, in the practice of applying this theory, there is another problem - the cost cannot be measured accurately, and this makes it possible to distort the results of production.
One of the serious mistakes of the Marxist theory of value is that from the very beginning Marx abandoned the analysis of the second side of the commodity - use value: he recognized that it was not a subject of political economy, and therefore traced only one side of the commodity - the movement of value. Scientists of the next generations drew attention to the second side of the product - use value, to its role in the development of man and society, in human behavior in social production. The result was another theory of value - marginal utility theory , which, as a result of its refinement, improvement has become one of the foundations of modern economic theories of value and price.
Unfortunately, in our literature, these two theories are often opposed. But even at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. famous economists E. Bernstein and M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky proposed to combine these two theories, seeing in them an objective and subjective assessment of value. In order to understand the essence of marginal (additional) utility, it is necessary to distinguish between abstract and concrete utility. Let's try to consider this with an example. We all know that one of the most essential products for humans is water, we know its usefulness, what needs it satisfies. This is its abstract utility. But it can be specific. If the first bucket of water is needed so that a person does not die of thirst, then the second can be used for cooking, the third for washing, the fourth for washing, the fifth for watering the animals, the sixth for watering the garden, the seventh for watering flowers. etc. Which one is the most valuable for a person? Probably the first, but the value of the subsequent ones is gradually decreasing. This situation is even clearer by the example of apples. If the first apple is the tastiest, then the second gives less pleasure, even less the third, the fourth, and the tenth, probably, you don't want to look at. Naturally, the first apple has the greatest value, the greatest usefulness, and each subsequent one is less and less. Thus, we can say that the marginal utility is the additional utility from each subsequent consumed unit of the product, and it is the least utility of the last product that determines its value.
There is a certain relationship between the amount of goods available and their utility: no matter what goods we take, with an increase in its reserves, it begins to satisfy all less important needs, or, in other words, with an increase in the amount of goods available to the consumer, utility each subsequent unit of this good becomes less than the utility of the previous unit. This is a universal law of development - the law of diminishing marginal utility .
Marginal utility is not the exclusive property of any particular part of the good (the fifth bucket of water or the sixth apple); any part of it can be marginal. It all depends on how many equal parts of the good the consumer has. Therefore, the total economic value of a good is equal to the marginal utility of this good, multiplied by the available number of its equal parts. In this case, the obtained value is a subjective assessment of the good by one consumer or another.
The theory of marginal utility and the labor theory of value are opposites, but they do not contradict each other. In fact, this is an objective and subjective assessment of the value of a given product. Attention to subjective assessment the commodity ultimately reoriented the commodity economy, it began to take into account the requirements of the consumer more, to study his needs - production more and more turned its face to the person, and the person turned into the goal of the development of production.
Commodity production gave rise to money. The question of what is money has been of concern to scientists for a long time. There was a lot of controversy about the essence of money, however, and now there are different points of view. We will start with the traditional, well-established (but not the only) theory - the commodity nature of money.
Exchange originated in primitive society, but then it was of an accidental nature, sometimes surplus products were exchanged. Therefore, then the first arose, simple, or random, form of value when X a = Y b, those. X goods a is equal to Y of the item b. These products themselves, and their quantity, were random.
With the development of the division of labor, exchange also developed, and the supply of goods in the markets increased. And the simple form of value is transformed into full, or deployed, shape cost :
The difference between this form and the simple one lies in the fact that not one, but many goods acts as an equivalent. But this form has its drawbacks, which lie in the fact that the expression of the value of a commodity, standing in a relative form, has not received a complete expression, since a number of equivalents are not complete, and the value does not receive a single expression.
In practice, this made exchange difficult, since situations arose when the owner of the canvas needed an ax, and the owner of the ax did not need the canvas, but needed a sheep. The owner of the sheep, in turn, does not need a canvas or an ax, but a frock coat, etc. Therefore, as a result of the development of production on the market, one product is gradually allocated in each region, which is always in demand, and the full form of value turns into general cost form:
The peculiarity of this form of value is that all goods are in relative form, and only one good is in equivalent. In this regard, the equivalent commodity takes on a universal form.
Further development of ties between individual regions leads to the allocation of a single equivalent for the whole world, and the universal form of value turns into monetary ... The latter differs from the general not in the material properties of the equivalent product, but in its social role. Gold becomes the universal equivalent (money) due to its natural properties: divisibility, homogeneity of parts, preservation, portability. Thus, money arose spontaneously, as a result of the development of commodity production and forms of value. They originated from a commodity and are themselves a commodity, but a commodity of a special kind, which is opposed to all others as a universal equivalent. As a commodity, money retains all its properties: it has value and use value. The value of the commodity "money" is determined by the amount of social labor necessary for the production of one monetary unit; the use value of money consists in the ability to perform the functions of a universal equivalent. The essence of money is most fully revealed in their functions.
The main function of money is the measure of value. This function is performed by gold: the amount of labor expended in the production of a commodity is compared with the amount of labor required to produce gold, i.e. it is determined how much gold corresponds to a given commodity. To facilitate measurement, a price scale has been introduced. The scale of the flail is the amount of gold legalized by the state, which in a given country is taken as a unit. The value of the goods, expressed in money, is called at a cost goods.
The second function is means of circulation. In this function, money serves as an intermediary between the seller and the buyer, between goods. Formula commodity circulation: T1 - D - T2, i.e. a good is exchanged (sold) for money in order to buy another good with it. When implementing this function, the problem arises of determining the amount of money required for circulation:
where KD is the amount of money required for circulation;
SCT - the sum of the prices of all manufactured goods;
K - the sum of the prices of goods sold on credit;
P is the amount of payments for previously sold goods on credit;
VP - reciprocal payments.
The third function of money is instrument of payment. This function arose with the development of credit relations. In fact, here money also pays for a product or service, but with a time gap. The transfer of goods or the provision of a service does not coincide in time with payment. This may include payment for goods purchased on credit, payment wages, payment for housing, etc.
The fourth function is means of accumulation. In the early stages of the development of monetary circulation, when gold money existed, its withdrawal from circulation turned gold coins into treasures. Now paper money can serve as a means of accumulation. Such accumulation is necessary when large purchases or capital investments in production are coming, although the persistent inflation complicates this process.
And the last, fifth function - world money , i.e. money used for settlements between individual states in the world market. Quite recently, only gold performed this function, but stable national currencies gradually emerged, to which this function was transferred. Currently, the main means of payment in the world market are the US dollar and the euro.
Modern Western economists, as a rule, distinguish three functions: a measure of value, a medium of circulation and a means of accumulation. In their opinion, the function of the means of payment is included in the medium of exchange, and the time factor does not reflect changes in the economic content of the function. World money is not allocated as a separate function, since world money, i.e. money in the world market can perform any function.
Money has gone through several forms in its development. At first they existed in the form of coins (gold, silver, copper), then paper money came in their place. Currently coins from precious metals in circulation are absent, mainly paper money and coins from non-precious alloys are circulating, but fundamentally new means of payment have appeared: checks, credit cards, etc. Even in the world market, paper banknotes of individual countries serve as means of payment. Gold has practically gone out of circulation.
In recent years, there has been a constant debate about what modern money is: a commodity or not a commodity? Considering this issue, it must be borne in mind that money as a form of the value of a commodity reflects specific historical conditions. If at the first stages of the development of commodity production money really existed as a commodity - a universal equivalent, then in the changing concrete historical conditions of today, money still performs the function of a universal equivalent, but retains its connection with the world of commodities only indirectly. The value of money is no longer determined by the amount of gold it contains, but by the mass produced by all commodities. The price of a commodity is determined not in proportion to the gold content of the monetary unit, but depending on the level of production costs, as well as on the demand and supply of this commodity in the market.
If we consider monetary systems as a whole, then in the XX century. the ratio between gold and paper money has changed. If earlier gold was the basis of the monetary system, its primary element, now paper money has become the main structural link of the monetary system. Gold is only a certain reserve, the insurance fund of this system. Retaining all your physical properties, gold is still the most reliable commodity that can always be exchanged for paper money. Therefore, both individuals and banks accumulate gold as a reserve, as a way to save money from inflation. Therefore, having ceased to be a key link in the monetary system, gold remained one of its constituent elements.
Currency in circulation can be subject to inflation. Inflation - this is the depreciation of paper money, a decrease in the purchasing power of each monetary unit. It arises when the amount of money in circulation exceeds the sum of the prices of the goods produced. The causes and mechanisms of inflation are quite complex, and they will be considered in detail when studying the section "Macroeconomics". In the meantime, it should be noted that inflation has become an inevitable companion of the development of the market economy, not a single country has been able to avoid it, but the rate of inflation can be regulated. Since prices (respectively, the standard of living of the population) and the rate of development of production depend on the level of inflation in the country, the problem of regulating inflation is one of the fundamental problems of state regulation. market economy.
The development of commodity-money relations is carried out on the basis of action the law of value - the main law of commodity production. The essence of the law of value lies in the fact that all goods are produced and exchanged on the basis of socially necessary labor. This is not only the law of commodity circulation, but also the law of production. The mechanism of action of the law of value is based on the difference between the individual and social values of a commodity.
In simple commodity production and in a developed market economy, the law of value performs the following functions.
- 1. The regulator of the proportions of production. Since prices in the market depend on supply and demand, then if supply does not satisfy demand, and prices for this item growing, this means that its producers, selling goods at higher prices, receive significantly higher incomes. In pursuit of these incomes, other producers direct their capital to this production, which leads to a change in the proportions between individual industries and industries. When the market is saturated with goods and prices begin to fall, there will be an outflow of capital to another industry that is more profitable in this period. And this process is ongoing.
- 2. Differentiator of commodity producers. Since goods are sold at cost (that is, socially necessary costs), those producers whose individual value is higher than the social one cannot withstand competition and are ruined. Those who produce goods at below public costs are enriched.
- 3. A stimulant for the development of productive forces. A manufacturer who has introduced any innovation that makes it possible to increase labor productivity produces goods with an individual value that is less than the social value, and sells them at social value. Consequently, he receives additional profit. This happens until the innovation gets social distribution and does not lead to a decrease in socially necessary labor costs. In order to get additional profit again, you need to improve the tools of labor, the organization of production, etc. develop productive forces.
Thus, the law of value, through stimulating the development of productive forces and differentiation of commodity producers, creates the necessary conditions for the development of simple commodity production into capitalist production, for the further development of commodity-money relations and a market economy.
Separation is the second prerequisite for the emergence of a commodity economy.
The main features of economic isolation are:
1) full ownership of the product being created; 2) economic freedom; 3) economic responsibility; 4) dependence on the final results of management; 5) the presence of a private economic interest, which is realized in a paid equivalent exchange.
The main features of a commercial economy: social division of labor, economic isolation of business entities, production of a product for sale, and not for own consumption, exchange of goods as a form of economic connection between producers, equivalence of exchange. There are two types of commercial production: 1.simple commodity production; 2. general commodity production. Simple commodity production is characterized by the combination in one person of the producer, the entrepreneur and the owner of the means of production. In conditions of general commodity production, it is widely used wage labor, labor power becomes a commodity, and the employee becomes the owner and seller of this special commodity. Simple commodity production is characterized by small scale and simple instruments of labor, while large commodity production is based on the use of a significant mass of resources and labor, complex technological systems, high concentration of production.
11. The market: the reasons and conditions for its emergence and development. Subjects and objects of the market. Market - it is any institution or mechanism that brings together buyers and sellers of a particular product or service. “The price mechanism is a key link in market relations, as it provides a link between producers and consumers, sellers and buyers, balancing the supply of goods and services and the demand for them ”. Market economy - it is an economic system that is controlled, regulated and managed by the market, i.e. free, prices.
An economic model of this type is based not only on the system of social division of labor and specialization, but also on the right of private property of the subjects of market relations. Let us consider in more detail the conditions for the emergence of the market. The first condition (prerequisite) for the emergence of a market economy is the social division of labor and specialization, or, in other words, the technical isolation of participants in economic activity. It indicates that each of them is engaged in the production of some specific goods and services, working directly to meet not their own needs for these benefits, but the needs of other people. To meet the common needs of all participants in the social division of labor, they need to enter into an exchange with each other. But exchange in itself is not tantamount to the existence of the market, just as the social division of labor is a sufficient condition for its development. Exchange takes place in all economic systems where there is a division of labor and specialization. The second necessary condition for the emergence of a market economy is the so-called economic isolation of business entities, which can exist only when they are all independent, autonomous in making decisions about what, how and for whom to produce; how much, to whom and at what price to sell. Economic isolation arises on the basis of private property, then extends to collective property (cooperatives, joint stock companies). In essence, economic isolation means that the manufacturer is fully responsible for the results of his labor, that his welfare depends on the ratio of the benefits received from the implementation of the created good and the costs of its production. For such an economic order to exist, it is necessary that ownership of the means of production and the results of labor should be held not by the state, but by the producers themselves, i.e. to keep it private. Thus, the right to private property is a prerequisite formation, development and improvement of market relations. The third condition for the effective functioning of the market economy is the independence of the manufacturer, freedom of entrepreneurship. Off-market regulation of the economy is inevitable in any system, however, the less constrained the commodity producer, the more room for the development of market relations. Thus, the market system is characterized by the domination of private property, social division of labor, extensive development of exchange relations, it has specific principles and incentives for economic management. based on freedom of entrepreneurship, freedom of choice of professional activity for everyone who wants to work, freedom of consumer choice for each buyer. The subjects of the market are the owners of goods, producers of services, owners of money. Market objects - material goods, factors of production, resources, goods and services, about which the subjects of the market interact, in market relations. Forms of market organization are bazaar, shop, auction.
12. The structure and functions of the market.
1. Regulatory. The market is the regulator of production, of the entire economy. For example, with an increase in demand for a product, prices rise, and resources are rushed into the corresponding sector of the economy. 2. Stimulating. Through the mechanism of pricing and competition, the market stimulates the introduction of the achievements of scientific and technological progress into production, a decrease in costs per unit of production and an increase in its quality, an expansion of the range of goods and services.
Commodity production is a more complex form of people's economic life. This is the production of products not for their own consumption, but for the purchase and sale, exchange.
For the emergence and existence of commodity production, two conditions are necessary:
1) social division of labor, because if it does not exist, then there is no need for exchange;
2) economic isolation of producers from each other.
It first manifested itself in the conditions of private ownership of the means of production.
The further expansion of exchange led to the emergence of intermediary activities (trade) and the separation of the merchants.
Signs of manifestation of economic isolation of commodity producers:
■ forms and boundaries of appropriation of means and results of production;
■ independent determination of production volumes, setting prices, distribution of profits, etc .;
■ independence in the management of production and sales of products;
■ independence in the choice of suppliers of raw materials, electricity, components, responsibility for the implementation of contracts, agreements;
■ self-financing, economic risk, self-sufficiency, etc.
Commodity production is such an organization of a social economy in which individual products are made by separate producers, and to meet social needs, the purchase and sale of these products on the market, which are transformed into commodities, is necessary.
Commodity production is of two types: simple and general (capitalist). The commonality of both types of commodity production is as follows:
■ they are based on private ownership of the means of production, albeit in various forms;
■ economic ties between people and businesses are carried out through exchange;
■ economic development on a social scale is spontaneous;
■ competition of commodity producers, which can lead some to ruin, and others to enrichment.
More on the topic Commodity production, the conditions for its occurrence:
- 7.2. COMMODITY PRODUCTION: CONDITIONS AND CAUSES OF OCCURRENCE
- 4.1 Forms of social economy: natural and commodity production.
- 7. The concept and conditions for the emergence of commodity production. Its types.
- Lesson 7 Subsistence farming and its signs. Commodity production and its types
Introduction 3
Chapter 1. Commodity production - the fundamental principle of market development 5
1.1. The causes and essence of commodity production 5
1.2. Features of the development of the market and commodity production in
modern conditions 10
Chapter 2. The role and specifics of commodity production
in the Russian economy 20
2.1. The main directions of development of commodity production
in the market economy of Russia 20
2.2. Analysis of the formation and development of commodity production
in the agro-industrial complex of the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic 24
Conclusion 31
List of used literature 33
Introduction
In the process of long evolution in all countries of the world, the dominance of the market economy as the main and most effective form of economic management has been established. It is based on commodity production. It is understood as the production of products by separate, private, isolated producers, each of which specializes in the production of one particular product, therefore, to meet social needs, it is necessary to buy and sell products on the market, to exchange them.
In the long-term economic evolution, the "creation" of the market occurred as a result of people's search for a solution to the eternal economic dilemma: "rare, limited resources - unlimited human needs for various goods." Perhaps it would be more accurate to say that market entry was predetermined by the economic environment itself. The limited resources were one of the reasons for the social division of labor, the specialization of industries and types of human activity. The modern economic system itself is a kind of product of the ever-increasing scale of the division of labor and deepening of specialization. However, not everyone has succeeded in finding a solution to the need-opportunity problem. World experience shows that the emergence and functioning of commodity relations did not always automatically generate the progressive development of society. For millennia, trade flourished in many cities of Central Asia and the Middle East, but most of the states now located here continue to remain underdeveloped.
The purpose of the topic is to reveal the pattern of occurrence and the essence of the commodity form of production; find out the socio-economic nature of its simplest structural unit - the commodity; to reveal its contradictions at the present stage of development.
Target term paper identified the main tasks:
· To reveal the essence of commodity production as the fundamental principle of market development;
· Determine the reasons for the emergence of commodity production;
· To analyze the interdependence of the sphere of production and the sphere of circulation;
· To identify the specifics of the development of the market and commodity production in modern conditions;
· To determine the role and characteristics of commodity production in the Russian economy;
· To consider the main directions of development of commodity production in the market economy of Russia;
· To analyze the formation and development of commodity production in the agro-industrial complex of the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic.
The theoretical significance of the study is the generalization of scientific knowledge on this issue.
The structure of the course work is expressed in its content.
For the disclosure of the set topic, the following structure is determined: the work consists of an introduction, two chapters of the conclusion, a list of used literature and an appendix. The title of the chapters reflects their content.
Chapter 1. Commodity production - the fundamental principle of market development
1.1. The causes and essence of commodity production
The history of the development of society testifies that over long periods, covering various social modes of production, some general forms economic life. Social practice knows three forms of social production - natural, commodity, and directly social. In the pre-capitalist formations, the natural form of production prevailed, but already in the period of the disintegration of the primitive system, a commodity form emerged. V modern world in all developed countries the commodity form of production is dominant. As the social orientation of the market economy intensifies, elements of a directly social form develop. The role of commodity production in the economic life of the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, where the level of the natural economy is still high, is also growing. All this proves that commodity production has a high adaptive ability to different forms property and production methods.
The most successful definition of commodity production within the framework of the historical-logical concept was given by V. Lenin in his famous work “Concerning the so-called question of markets”: “Commodity production is understood as such an organization of the social economy when products are produced by separate isolated producers, each specializing on the development of any one product, so that for the satisfaction of social needs it is necessary to buy and sell products (which become, by virtue of this, goods) on the market. "
Now we will try to highlight the most important provisions reflecting the essence of such a phenomenon as commodity production:
1. Isolation of producers (a sufficiently mature institution of private ownership of the means of production and the result of labor is required);
2. Their specialization in the production of some product (a developed social division of labor is necessary and the right to create certain goods for certain groups of producers must be secured, production must turn into the creation of goods for others).
For the production of goods to appear as a phenomenon on a regular, repetitive basis, both conditions noted above are necessary.
As human society develops, commodity production encompasses all new spheres of economic activity and eventually becomes dominant (but not the only one)! form of production of goods and services (economic form).
Let us compare two well-known and existing together, including those currently in the most developed countries, of the type of production - commodity and non-commodity (subsistence farming), the result of which is a product of subsistence farming.
Subsistence economy is production to satisfy one's own needs, in which there is no commodity exchange, the product of labor does not take the form of a commodity, there is no specialization, there is a developed division of labor, and therefore, the quality of the product produced is not so high, it is almost impossible to compare costs and results.
Commodity production - production to meet the needs of other members of society, in which the producer satisfies his own needs through the exchange of the product of his own labor for the product of others, the product of labor takes the form of a commodity, there is specialization and a developed division of labor, allowing the use of the most modern means of production, which makes it possible to produce the highest quality products, commodity production is based on the comparison by each manufacturer of the costs and results of their own activities, which ultimately makes it possible to minimize not only individual, but also social costs of production.
Historically (this can be considered proven) the first was non-commodity production (natural economy), which is objectively transformed into commodity production and exists along with it. Of course, commodity production based on the division of labor and a developed institution of private property creates a higher productivity of labor. You shouldn't have any illusions here. The most productive modern production is organized precisely according to the type of commodity economy (production). However, non-commodity production still persists and is quite widespread, for example, in the form of a family (household) economy. This applies to modern civilizations of the East, and to the dacha economy in our Fatherland, and to domestic activities in the developed countries of the West. Examples of the latter are cooking, washing, cleaning, etc.
Commodity production also presupposes commodity exchange. Note, however, that they are not the same thing. Historically, commodity exchange precedes commodity production; moreover, it can exist without commodity production. Let us recall the appearance of a sporadic surplus over a necessary product, which entered the process of exchange, took the form of a commodity, but at the same time there was no commodity production, when producers initially create any product of labor for others (for exchange).
At a certain stage in the development of human society, when commodity production is already sufficiently mature and developed, a market exchange appears, a market institution develops - all economic actors begin to recognize and obey uniform economic rules that pave their way as an objective reality (below we will see that this is will be associated with the emergence of money as an objective reality and the transformation of the trust of economic entities to each other into a material (objective) force, which cannot but be recognized by all participants in economic relations (economic entities)). Failure to recognize these realities leads a private economic entity to higher costs than “playing by the established rules”.
Market exchange also presupposes market production, which ultimately creates the institution of the market itself. Note that the market is specially considered within the framework of the neoclassical approach in the course of microeconomics, so here we will be interested in the basic approach. Let's highlight two fundamental points:
1. The market is a system (set) of economic relations (organizational and economic), which develops between economic entities, which, trying to realize their own interests, realize that the recognition of objective rules of behavior and adherence to them is the most effective way for their implementation;
2. The market is Information system, within the framework of which any actions of any subject are perceived by him and other subjects in the form of certain information impulses (an economic subject acts according to the following algorithm: collection of information, its processing, decision-making, practical action, which is perceived by other subjects as an information impulse, causing a response , which becomes new information for us, and so on).
However, let's get back to commodity production. Historically, there have been two types of commodity production - simple and capitalist. The first was a reality within the framework of the slaveholding, feudal and Asian modes of production; it survived, although it changed its role, under the conditions of the capitalist mode of production. This type of commercial production quite easily "gets along" with any economic relations and in any social economic systems, including such exotic ones for the world economic system as the socialist economy (which will be discussed below). Its main distinguishing feature is that in such a situation the owner of the means of production is also an employee.
The second appeared much later and is the dominant economic form in modern conditions. The fundamental difference between capitalist commodity production is that within its framework, the sphere of commodity relations also captures such a specific factor of production as a person's ability to work (labor power). Only his owner is alienated work force... A person, being legally free, is also free from the means of production (the so-called double-free worker, see below). Under capitalist commodity production, the direct producer is not the owner of the means of production, and the owner of the means of production is not a direct worker.
It seems important to us to dwell on such a specific type of commodity production as socialist. Soviet science tried either to oppose this type of organization of production to capitalist commodity production, speaking of the commodity form of production under socialism, or simply asserted that socialist production is non-commodity in nature.
In conclusion, we can formulate a very important conclusion about the diversity of the economy. Today, in developed countries in the economy, one can find both a developed capitalist structure (individual, associated capitalists and the state as an employer-capitalist), and simple commodity production, represented by millions of firms that do not use the recruitment of labor on a sustainable basis, and a subsistence economy in the form a household whose products of labor are directly consumed within the family. Of course, the leading structure is the capitalist (capitalist commodity production), which produces most of the gross domestic product of the developed countries. Allocation of the leading structure makes it possible to define the modern economy of developed countries as capitalist.
Thus, the market is an indispensable component of the commodity economy, at the same time the market is back side commodity production, the basis of a market economy. Without commodity production there is no market, without a market there is no commodity production. The objective necessity of the market is due to the same reasons that necessitate the existence of commodity production.
1.2. Features of the development of the market and commodity production in modern conditions
Over the past century, qualitatively new aspects related to the process of market evolution have appeared in the dialectic of relations between concrete and abstract, private and social labor.
The history of market development makes it possible to distinguish the following types of market: undeveloped, free, regulated and deformed.
An undeveloped market is characterized by the fact that market relations are random, most often commodity (barter) in nature. But here, too, the market plays a certain role, contributes to the differentiation of members of society, increased motivation to develop the production of certain goods.
The free (classic) market is characterized by the following features.
1. An unlimited number of participants in market relations and free competition between them.
2. Free access to any economic activity of all members of society.
3. Full mobility of factors of production; unlimited freedom of movement of capital.
4. Each participant has complete information about the market (about the rate of return, demand, supply, etc.). Implementation of the principle of rational behavior of market actors (optimization of individual well-being as a result of income growth: sell at a higher price, buy at a lower price) is impossible without information.
5. Complete homogeneity of goods of the same name (no trade marks, etc.).
6. No participant in free competition is able to directly influence the decision of another by non-economic methods.
7. Prices are set spontaneously in the course of free competition.
8. There is no monopoly (one producer), monopsony (one buyer) and government regulation.
The advantages of a free market are that it functions on the basis of a self-regulating mechanism, turns to the person, through prices based on demand creates benchmarks for investment in production. The free market mechanism is the mechanism of a knowingly deficit-free market. It ensures the efficient allocation of resources in society; flexibility and high adaptability to changing conditions; freedom of choice and action of market actors; maximum use of the achievements of scientific and technological revolution; the ability to meet a variety of needs: improving the quality of goods and services, relatively quick restoration of the disturbed balance. It seems that the market operates almost automatically, although in fact the regulation here is carried out by trial and error.
But the free market also has the following serious disadvantages.
1. The market leads to differentiation in the standard of living of the population, which is not so bad, because it provides high motivation to work. The bad thing is that he is cruel and indifferent to poor people, does not provide social "protection" for the population. The social consequences of the free market are unemployment, ruin, poverty of certain groups of the population. From a general human point of view, market distribution is unfair, since it does not provide a minimum standard of living for everyone. Therefore, government intervention is needed to solve social problems.
Market allocation is based on income received. From the standpoint of market relations, any income earned on the basis of free competition is fair. And those who are unable to receive this income (for health reasons, old age, etc.), are doomed to a beggarly existence.
The market cannot create conditions for the realization of the right to work for all members of society. Employed only by those for whom there is a demand for labor. A free market does not guarantee full employment of the population, as well as a stable price level.
2. The mechanism of free competition does not provide the economy with the required amount of money for the development of production. There is a lack of money. The problem of emission of money is assumed by the state in the person of the State Bank.
3. The activities of free competitors often lead to unwanted effects such as pollution environment, contamination of food with pesticides and other harmful substances, the development of drug addiction, alcoholism, etc. The free market, therefore, often ignores the potential Negative consequences decisions made, and also does not contribute to the preservation of non-reproducible resources.
4. The free market does not create incentives for the production of goods and services for collective use, is not able to provide society with services that any person needs and from which no one gets profit (defense, public administration, nature conservation, etc.).
5. The market does not provide effective motivation for basic research... It implements the already existing scientific and technical achievements, but does not allocate funds for fundamental research in science and technology, and they are extremely necessary for the development of society in the long term.
6. An economy operating on the basis of a free market is subject to unstable development with corresponding recessionary (recession or slowdown in production growth) and inflationary processes.
7. The market does not apply to those activities that cannot be subordinate exclusively to commercial criteria (health care, education, science, culture, a single transport system, unprofitable production), but are necessary for society.
A visual representation of the specifics of the evolution of a product can be provided by the production of a modern car. The USA, for example, annually produces about 11 million, Japan - about 15 million cars. A modern car consists of an average of 15,000 parts, which are produced by both giant companies and many small suppliers. American Boeing 743 is assembled from 4.5 million different parts, in the production of which 16 thousand companies are employed. Under these conditions, the contradiction between abstract labor as a substance of value and concrete labor that produces a certain use value takes on a new, more complex form.
Several thousand types of specific labor are involved in creating the use value of a car. The gigantic concentration of production, the growth of the level of socialization of labor lead to the fact that concrete labor is less and less manifested as the private labor of an independent, economically isolated commodity producer. General Motors, the most powerful American monopoly of automobiles, in the early 90s. there were about 40 thousand suppliers, and the share of purchases in the total turnover was about 48%. In Japanese companies "Toyota" and "Nissan" the share of purchased parts and materials is more than 70%. Under these conditions, the definition of concrete labor as social occurs through a system of orders, contracts, subcontracts. General Motors establishes long-term production ties with suppliers, and the transformation of an individual part, a car unit into a commodity does not take place in the usual way of full and free competition in the market, but is planned in advance, takes the form of a contract. The parent firm tightly controls production costs in its supplying branches, introduces limited commercial settlement for them, constantly focusing on external suppliers. All this testifies to the transformation of commodity production in modern conditions.
One of essential principles the organization of the modern market in developed capitalist countries consists in the fact that a potential producer, before starting to produce a product, finds a buyer, pre-concludes a written or oral agreement or contract with him. They stipulate the quality of the goods, prices, delivery time, payments, etc. Thanks to this, the sphere of market relations, in essence, turns into a sphere of direct relations between producers and consumers.
In the 70-80s. thanks to the computerization and automation of production, the transition to flexible production systems, the automotive industry is partially starting to work on individual orders. This means that each machine is assembled and equipped on a production line, a conveyor in accordance with individual tastes, wishes of the future owner, which are entered into the computer program. Based on nearly 40 types of vehicles produced, several hundred samples of finishing or equipment of the machines can be ordered, which testifies to the organic combination of standard production of mass production with individual orders. This removes the problem of market confirmation of the social necessity of the goods produced, which testifies to the gradual strengthening of the direct social form of production.
An even stronger undermining of commodity production (and, hence, less and less manifestation of concrete labor in the form of private labor) occurs as a result of increased government intervention in the economy. Such intervention is carried out through the conclusion of state contracts, the purchase by the state of a significant share of the manufactured products, which means a guaranteed demand for it. Government contract is a detailed economic and legal document, which regulates organizational, technical, administrative and managerial relations in the execution of an order by contractors.
In the process of deepening the international division of labor, specific labor takes the form of various types of labor on a broader intellectual basis (out of 8 thousand allied companies with which the Italian automobile concern FIAT cooperates, about 2 thousand are foreign firms), and the reduction of the costs of specific labor to its change in abstract form occurs in the process of forming the international value of the goods. Value here expresses the relations of production between commodity producers in different countries.
Trends in the development of the economy and the emergence of a direct social form of production. Within the limits of modern commodity production, there are two opposite tendencies: towards its further development and towards its undermining. The first is due to the following factors: the deepening of the social division of labor (for example, the number of engineering industries and industries in developed countries is more than 200, and in less developed countries - about 15); specialization, separation of various types of activity (separation of individual production functions into independent production); an increase in the number of economically isolated producers (in the USA in 1947-1996 the number of enterprises increased by almost 10 million, which from the point of view of property relations means the isolation of commodity producers who, by manufacturing goods and providing services, enter into relations with other commodity producers and consumers); the transformation of science into a direct productive force (patents, licenses, know-how become a commodity); isolation of the sphere of production of new information technology and software products (new large social division of labor); the growing role and economic significance of the sphere of non-material production (education, health care, etc.) in the reproduction of the labor force. The services that these industries provide are becoming commodities.
A similar impact on the development of commodity production is exerted by the process of deepening the international division of labor, in particular, international specialization production. The trend towards the expansion of commodity production is also due to the growth of the population and the operation of the law of increasing needs.
The strengthening of the tendency to undermine commodity production and market relations, in particular, is determined by the further growth of the scale of the unit division of labor, which is based on detailed and operational specialization within individual production units. The basis of these processes is the growing concentration of production, the emergence and development of gigantic associations and the strengthening of elements of organization and orderliness within individual companies, the development of contractual relations between monopolies, on the one hand, and small and medium-sized enterprises, on the other, in which the latter specialize in the production of individual companies. parts and assemblies for completing the final product. In addition, all transactions of sale and purchase between corporations are preceded by the conclusion of a written or oral contract, which is legally binding. Each of the parties undertakes obligations to fulfill the terms of the contract, and violation of it involves penalties. Therefore, preliminary plans of production, its provision with equipment, labor, raw materials, as well as financial plans of the enterprise, plans of scientific and technical research, etc. are drawn up. In these conditions, there is no need to confirm through the market the socially necessary nature of the goods produced.
The creation of international and transnational corporations, joint ventures, the conclusion of contracts by the state at the national and international levels, and the centralized supranational regulation of the economy also lead to a certain undermining of commodity production. A similar effect is exerted by the giant banks that create the apparatus for social regulation process of production and distribution of products.
The emergence of a direct social form of production leads to the undermining of commodity production, in which, as a result of the planning process at the micro and macro levels, as well as the use of the achievements of scientific and technological revolution, the satisfaction of most of the social needs will occur without the transformation of the products of labor into a commodity on the market. The denial of a directly social form of production testifies to a non-historical approach, first of all, to the commodity form of organization of production, which did not always exist and cannot function forever. A more developed form, which dialectically, that is, with the preservation of the strong, progressive aspects of the commodity form, will negate it, will act in qualitatively different, new manifestations, while obeying the laws of development of social production directly. But in general, in modern conditions, the tendency to expand the scale of commodity production is predominant.
The main features of modern commodity production include the deepening of the existing forms of the social division of labor and the emergence of a new large division of labor; predominance collective production, the collective nature of labor and associated forms of ownership; the establishment of economic ties between producers through the market, contract system and as a result of cooperation, specialization, etc .; the predominantly planned nature of the development of commodity production on a national and international scale; state regulation of commodity production (competitive environment); transformation of the state into a large commodity producer, into an entrepreneur, financier, creditor, organizer; the weakening of the socio-economic isolation of commodity producers due to the development of the above phenomena and processes.
Chapter 2. The role and specifics of commodity production
in the Russian economy
2.1. The main directions of development of commodity production in the market economy of Russia
The development of the market in Russia, as well as in the whole world, takes place under circumstances that people do not freely choose, but which are available, given to them and passed from the past. This allows us to single out general patterns and conditions for the development of the market and specific ones for Russia.
The modern model of market economy, which has developed in countries with highly and moderately developed market economies, is characterized by the following general patterns: maximum privatization, openness of markets, a high level of development of the country's economy as a whole and market infrastructure, in particular, a developed system of methods of financial and budgetary regulation of the national economy, currency convertibility, economic growth and the cyclical nature of the economy as a whole.
The specificity of the development and entry of Russia into the system of socially oriented market economy is determined by the following:
· Relatively low level of development of productive forces in comparison with developed countries; the weakening of world economic ties throughout the breadth and depth inherent in modern integration processes; the continuing dominance of elements of the administrative-command system of management; an extremely high level of concentration of production with an insignificant counterbalance in the form of small and medium-sized businesses;
· Deeply monopolized structure of the economy and main markets; imbalance in the economy; isolation from a person (alienation from production); the need to combine federal, republican-regional interests; a combination of contradictory processes of regionalization of markets and the strengthening of the economic interdependence of the economies of individual republics and regions, districts, etc., the need for a single economic space.
The main patterns of market development are manifested as trends.
The categorization of Russia as an emerging market country can have several important policy implications.
First, this means that the Russian economy reacts to government macroeconomic regulation in much the same way as the market economy of any other country. Therefore, the competent use of macroeconomic levers can solve many problems, including structural ones. Moreover, it should be borne in mind that macroeconomic regulation is a much more subtle and complex instrument than many Russian leaders and “tough business executives” imagined a few years ago, and careless handling of such an instrument can harm the economy.
Having become a market country, we can no longer afford macroeconomic imbalances. Crisis 1998 showed that Russia is a part of the global financial system, and any problems arising in this system (including as a result of deliberate manipulations of large financial players), if the main macroeconomic indicators are imbalanced, may turn into a new severe crisis.
Secondly, the state must quickly rid the economy of those fetters that hinder private producers. Today, private capital is already capable of independently "pulling" the country out of the long-term crisis, and the rise of 1999 - early 2000. testifies to this with all the evidence. But it is also obvious that, despite all the talk about the liberal nature of the current Russian economy, in no country does the manufacturer feel disadvantaged, as in Russia. If a few years ago, high taxes and administrative regulation could be justified by the weakness of private capital and the need to concentrate funds in the hands of the state to support the economy and social sphere, but today it is the pressure on private capital that generates the “virtual economy” of barter, non-payments, “white” and “black” accounting, etc. As a result, not only private capital suffers, but also the state itself, which in no way can collect enough taxes to carry out normal state functions, not to mention the "development budget", industrial policy, etc.
Thirdly, the state should help the development of market institutions-organizations by all possible economic, legal and political means. This primarily concerns the financial and banking sector. The development of the banking system can now follow a different model than during the period of high inflation in the first half of the 90s: enterprises or groups of enterprises will create banks to serve their own needs for credit resources. This path of development and restoration of the banking system seems to be more organic and "healthy" than the one that prevailed before 1998, although it should be borne in mind that the system of state banking regulation is still oriented towards the "pre-crisis" type of the banking system.
Fourthly, Russia's transition to this category of countries sharply raises the question of reorientation public policy to create the most favorable framework environment for domestic and foreign business. A balanced balance is needed between supporting domestic producers and raising capital in general. In the modern world, capital mobility is so high that countries have to compete to attract capital, including domestic capital. At the beginning of the reforms, Russian capital could not yet “break away” from its domestic “roots”, but in the last one and a half to two years, cases of Russian capital export for production purposes to the countries of Europe, Asia and Africa have multiplied (in contrast to the usual capital flight). This means that we are still losing in the international competition for attracting capital.
The last, fifth consequence of the transition of our country to the category of "emerging markets" is the need to form a new nature of relations between federal center, subjects of the Federation (regions) and the outside world. In many works of foreign authors studying the phenomenon of "globalization" ("globalization" + "local" administrative formations), it is noted that with the intensification of international relations and facilitation of contacts between organizations in the world economy, a new class of "players" or "actors" has emerged: these are sub-federal formations and large cities. They independently enter world markets, especially the markets of information services and finance, based on their own interests, and usually enter into relations with foreign counterparties across state borders. A similar phenomenon is beginning to spread in Russia.
Development of the Russian economy 1996 - 2006 can be confirmed by the following macroeconomic indicators (table 1.).
Table 1.
Some indicators of social economic development RF for
1996-2006 (in% to the previous year).
Indicators
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Gdp
97,0
95,0
85,5
91,3
87,3
96,0
96,6
100,9
105,4
108,3
122,7
Industrial products (large and medium-sized enterprises)
99,9
92,0
81,2
83,8
77,2
95,3
95,5
102,0
111,0
111,9
132,9
Products and services Agriculture
96,4
95,5
90,6
95,6
88,0
92,0
94,9
101,5
104,1
105,0
115,5
Investments
100,1
84,5
60,3
88,3
75,7
89,9
81,9
95,0
105,3
117,7
129,31
The table shows that after the decline in production in 1998 as a result of the financial crisis, growth rates began to grow significantly for all of the above indicators.
In 2006, real disposable cash incomes increased by 19.1% as compared to 1996, while real average monthly wages increased by 25.9%, and the assigned monthly wages, taking into account compensation payments, increased by 38%.
Thus, the adoption of a number of laws in 2006 are designed to promote the development of market relations in Russia, full-fledged entry into the world community, despite the opposition of conservative forces in the country, striving to revive the old, criminalization and corruption, international terrorism, the fight against which takes a lot of money. , which could be aimed at the civilized development of the country, scientific and technological progress, improving the life of our people.
2.2. Analysis of the formation and development of commodity production in the agro-industrial complex of the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic
The development of agro-industrial production is an economic process associated, on the one hand, with the social division of labor and its specialization, and on the other, with the need for interaction between specialized sectors and types of agricultural and industrial production. On the basis of the development of productive forces, their cooperation, combination and integration are observed, which have received a new impetus in world practice as a result of the latest achievements of scientific and technological progress.
The production and economic state of the agro-industrial complex in the region is at a low level of development and the pre-reform indicators have not been achieved either in agricultural production (70%) or in the processing of products (55.8%). In addition, new formations based on integration processes have not been restored or created in the agro-industrial complex of the KBR.
Therefore, for the formation and development of effective commodity production in the agro-industrial complex, a forecast for the development of agriculture for the next 10 years has been calculated, which is determined in the main provisions of the program “Development of agriculture in the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic for 2006-2010. ".
The forecast indicators for the development of agriculture in the republic can be judged on the basis of Table 2.
The data in the table show that by 2015 relative to 2005 it is planned to increase grain by 20.9%, corn for grain by 96.7%, vegetables by 40.6%, potatoes by 107.0%. At the same time, there will be a decrease in the area of crops for winter wheat and the gross yield of this crop, but at the same time, crops for corn for grain, vegetables and fodder will increase.
Achievement of the planned production volumes will ensure the saturation of the domestic market with food products and enter the foreign market with competitive products, improve food supply population, create real opportunities for the formation of regional and republican food funds, will contribute to a more complete use of the production capacity of food and processing industries.
An increase in agricultural production is expected due to a more efficient use of the existing production potential, available agricultural land and arable land, the development of land reclamation and increasing soil fertility, the introduction of energy-saving technologies, taking into account local climatic conditions, the transition to the cultivation of promising varieties and hybrids, timely harvesting, improvement storage and processing technologies.
To implement program activities in crop production, it is necessary to make 4,929 thousand tons of organic fertilizers 185.3 thousand tons of mineral fertilizers in terms of 100% nutrients, 3464 thousand tons of crop protection products from pests and diseases, it will be necessary to attract 590.0 million tons of fertilizers. rub. for variety exchange and variety renewal.
Table 2.
Forecast of production of the main types of agricultural crops, taking into account the development of integrated formations in the KBR
To implement the program objectives, it is envisaged to attract funds in the amount of 4463.51 million rubles. It is planned to use three sources of financial resources: federal, republican budget, own funds. Moreover, the share federal budget will amount to 15%, the republican budget -15%, own funds -70%.
An important place in the Program is given to the development of animal husbandry. In animal husbandry, as well as in crop production, there have been positive trends.
The growth in the production of livestock products and the number of livestock was achieved to a large extent due to the personal subsidiary plots of the population. However, as practice shows, not all agricultural producers were able to adapt equally to the market conditions of management. A slight increase in the productivity of livestock in the public sector could not compensate for the decrease in production volumes associated with the retirement of livestock, deficiencies in reproduction.
Taking into account state of the art In livestock raising, it is planned to increase the output of the sector on the basis of an increase in the livestock population, intensification and increase in the productivity of animals.
Intensive development of animal husbandry will allow stabilizing the number of cattle at the level of 270-280 thousand heads, including dairy cows - 115-120 thousand heads, pigs - 80-85 thousand heads, sheep and goats - 360-370 thousand heads ...
On average in the republic by 2015 it is planned to bring milk yield up to 3200 kilograms of milk per cow per year (in 2005 the figure was 2660 kilograms). It is planned to increase the level of herd reproduction: to bring calves up to 80-85 heads per 100 cows, piglets - up to 16-18 heads per main sow, lambs - up to 90-95 heads per 100 ewes.
In order to fulfill the tasks set, it is necessary to implement a set of interrelated organizational, technological, economic, economic and other measures that will increase the production of the main types of livestock products, as shown in Table 3. According to Table 3., by 2015 it is planned to bring meat production to 63 , 7 thousand tons, which is 40% more than the 2005 level, increase milk yield to 344.6 thousand tons, that is, by 31%, get 197 million eggs, which will also exceed the base level by 46%, in terms of per capita annual production of meat will be 42.2 kg, milk - 422.1 kg, eggs - 241.8 pieces.
Implementation of tasks for the development of livestock farming will require 2,046.5 million rubles.
The implementation of the main activities is planned through the use of funds from the federal budget, which will amount to 1134.7 million rubles. or 55.4%, own funds will be invested 355.6 million rubles.
The volume of domestic production of basic agricultural products will approach, and for some of them it will exceed the justified medical consumption standards, the quality of food products and their filling of the domestic market will improve. In addition, the achievement of the target production volumes for certain items will allow entering the foreign market with competitive products (corn seeds, fruits, vegetables).
The economic efficiency of the Program is estimated at 300-320 million rubles, which will be received by agricultural producers as a profit.
In addition, taxes paid by them to the budget of all levels and off-budget funds will increase due to the increase in the taxable base almost twofold.
Table 3.
Production of the main types of livestock products in the KBR for 2006-2015
The supply of raw materials for food and processing industry enterprises will improve.
Due to the growth of production and creation in settlements procurement of agricultural products, existing problems with the sale of products produced in personal subsidiary plots, the volumes of supplies of milk, meat, eggs, fruits and vegetables have been increased, the quality of the procured raw materials will improve.
As a result of the implementation of the Program, the number of additional jobs created will amount to over 17 thousand, including 10 thousand in the field of small business. At the same time, it is expected that the level of wages will double and the number of unemployed rural population will decrease, and social tension in the countryside will decrease.
The forecast is largely based on positive trends that are observed in the agricultural sector of the region, associated with the consistent adaptation of the agricultural sector to market conditions of management. The main directions are: intensification of production, renewal of the material and technical base and innovative activity in management. It was also taken into account that the effective development of agricultural production requires state support and regulation. The implementation of the national project for the development of the agro-industrial complex and the related financing of the subjects of the agroeconomy and rural social sphere were taken into account.
As a result of the implementation of the national project, there should be an increase in milk production by 2%, to the level of 2006, meat production by 3.7%. The volume of sales of products of private households and peasant farms in 2006-2007 increases by 35.5%. The commissioning of housing in the amount of more than 9 thousand square meters will be provided. m, as a result of which they will improve all living conditions 130 young professionals. The implementation of the forecast indicators and the main parameters of the national project for the development of the agro-industrial complex in the future will provide a way out of the crisis, stabilization and sustainable development of the agro-industrial complex of the region.
Thus, studies of the organizational and economic foundations of the formation and development of commodity production in the management system of the agro-industrial complex of the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic made it possible to identify the features of the formation of production structures and determine the forecast for the development of the agro-industrial complex of the region, which allows the agrarian economy of the region to function effectively.
Conclusion
As a result of the course work, the following conclusions were made.
The market is an indispensable component of a commodity economy, at the same time the market is the reverse side of commodity production, the basis of a market economy. Without commodity production there is no market, without a market there is no commodity production. The objective necessity of the market is due to the same reasons that necessitate the existence of commodity production.
The essence of commodity production as the basis of market relations is inherent to one degree or another in all stages of the development of civilization, but at the same time it is a complex socio-philosophical concept. It is not at all limited to the economic sphere. As a result of the natural-historical development of human society, commodity production includes the historical, national, cultural, religious, psychological features of the development of peoples that have absorbed all the wealth of centuries-old traditions of the joint arrangement of cultural and economic life. This determines the characteristics of the modern market and the market system in different countries. The market has taken place in all civilizations, but its role in them varies considerably. The fact that market relations today are still far from perfect is possibly due to the fact that in nature, perfection is generally unattainable.
Deep transformational changes in commodity production in the Russian economy require a special research focus on factors, trends and mechanisms of sustainable functioning and development of territorial structures of the region.
The analysis of the production and economic state of the agro-industrial complex in the region showed that they are at a low level of development and the pre-reform indicators have not been achieved either in agricultural production, 70%, or in the processing of products, 55.8%. In addition, new formations based on integration processes have not been restored or created in the agro-industrial complex of the KBR.
Therefore, the urgent tasks of the comprehensive development of the region necessitate the creation of an effective structure of the regional economy. The main provisions of the program "Development of Agriculture of the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic for 2006-2010." land reclamation and increase in land fertility, adaptation to market conditions, increasing material incentives, as well as financial and economic recovery.
Thus, as a result of the course work, the regularity of the emergence and essence of the commodity form of production is revealed; the reasons for the emergence of commodity production have been determined; analyzed the interdependence of the sphere of production and the sphere of circulation; revealed the specifics of the development of the market and commodity production in modern conditions; the role and features of commodity production in the Russian economy are determined; the main directions of development of commodity production in the market economy of Russia are considered; and also analyzed the foundations of the formation and development of commodity production in the agro-industrial complex of the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic.
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Butenko. A.P. Fifteen Years of Change in Russia: Achievements and Disappointments. f. "Social and humanitarian knowledge" No. 1, 2007. S. 223-234.
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Nesterenko A. The transition period is over. What's next? f. "Questions of Economics" No. 6, 2007, pp. 4-17.