Lecture 20. The “scenarios” method The “scenarios” method is one of the methods of expert assessments, with the help of which a picture of the object being studied in the future is given based on the current situation. Using this method, the main goals for the development of the research object are determined.

Lecture 21. SWOT analysis method The SWOT analysis method is a method that allows you to obtain an overall picture of the development of an organization by studying: the internal environment; external environment of the organization. This method consists of analyzing data on the external and internal environment and establishing connections

Lecture 23. Experiment how private method Research Experiment - a method for studying a control system in certain conditions its functioning, which can be real or artificially created by the researcher, to obtain the necessary information.

Lecture 24. Observation as a private research method Observation is a research method by collecting information about the object under study, which is carried out by observing the selected object of study. When conducting it, the researcher must use

2.1. Quadrant I. Workaholics. Pareto principle. ABC analysis method “Everything needs moderation” Solon, between 640 and 635 – approx. 559 BC. If you live by his rules, it is stress and crisis. Deadlines and explosions, crisis management, new deadlines and new crises. Constant stress kills at first

14.8. Method of morphological analysis There are no straight lines. Murphy's Laws. Rule of the ruler The main idea of ​​morphological analysis is to streamline the process of putting forward and considering various options for solving a problem. However, most of these options

Document analysis is used extremely often due to certain features of our society. The fact is that most sociological research is carried out in societies where writing and documents compiled on its basis are widespread. Documents also often include so-called iconographic documents, perceived visually, and phonetic documents, focused on auditory perception (music, radio broadcasts). This especially often applies to photographs, but in addition to them, sometimes this list includes films, television shows, works of fine art, household items, etc. Since they do not contain texts, in this case the visual, spatial and stylistic elements of these are taken into account documents.

It is believed that documents are or can be considered reliable evidence of phenomena occurring in reality. This largely relates to official documents, but may also refer to unofficial ones. However, when conducting research, you should be critical of all documents. For example, data official statistics may vary significantly depending on how it was compiled.

In the vast majority of cases, when conducting qualitative research, you have to deal with documents in one way or another. Some documents exist before the research is conducted, while others may be created for or during the conduct of social research. Almost any specific social research should begin with an analysis of existing documents on the problem under study. In particular, it is not recommended to begin either a pilot study, or even more so a field study, without first studying official statistical data - reports and publications of the State Statistics Committee, departmental statistics data, reports, decisions of boards, orders and instructions of the relevant government bodies, etc. An example The second (in relation to a specific study) type of documents can be records created during all kinds of interviews or focus groups, in which everything said by the participants is recorded for subsequent analysis.

Due to the fact that documents (in the broad sense) can exist for a very long time after the death of their creator, and are also often accessible to representatives of other cultures and subcultures, this method can be used to conduct historical research and studies of societies that for one reason or another are inaccessible researcher.

Traditional document analysis is a set of certain logical constructions aimed at revealing the main content of the material being studied. In most cases, the information contained in documents of interest to the researcher is present in them in an implicit form, in a form that meets the purposes for which the document was created (statistical report, law, etc.), and this does not always coincide with the interests and tasks of sociological analysis. Traditional analysis allows you to transform the original form of information contained in a document into the form of information that interests the researcher. In this case, it is necessary to establish who is the author of the document, for what purposes and in what social context it was created this document? What is the relationship between the facts reflected in the document and the reality being studied? How are the views, assessments, social and political preferences of the author, his status and position reflected in the content of the document? In search of an answer to these questions, the researcher has the opportunity to penetrate into the deeper meaning of the document, find out its content and apply this result to this particular study.

Traditional document analysis is an independent, creative process that depends on: 1) the content and focus of the document itself; 2) conditions, goals and objectives of the research being conducted; 3) qualifications, wealth of experience and creative intuition of the researcher (a more qualified and creatively thinking researcher will be able to extract from the same document much more extensive content necessary for research than a less qualified and experienced one who does not have creative imagination).

With all the importance and significance traditional look analysis is inseparable from the personality of the researcher, and therefore carries with it the possibility subjective assessment document. The desire to get rid of subjectivity led to the development of a significantly different type of formalized document analysis, called content analysis.

Sources

1. Jennifer Mason. Qualitative Research. – SAGE Publications, 1997

2. Qualitative Research. Theory, Method and Practice. Edited by David Silverman. – SAGE Publications, 1994

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English analysis, document; German Documentation analysis. Evaluate various documents (diplomatic documents, policies, concepts, etc.) using formal content analysis methods. Antinazi. Encyclopedia of Sociology, 2009 ... Encyclopedia of Sociology

A method of collecting primary data that uses documents as the main source of information. Dictionary of business terms. Akademik.ru. 2001 ... Dictionary of business terms

document analysis- A method of collecting primary data in which documents are used as the main source of information. Topics: accounting...

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Technical Translator's Guide Russian Sociological Encyclopedia - totality methodological techniques and procedures used to extract sociological information from documentary sources in the study of social processes and phenomena to solve specific research problems. In all modern...

Sociology: Encyclopedia Document analysis - one of the main methods of data collection in sociological research, which is aimed at obtaining reliable social information (social facts, values ​​and norms of behavior various categories population) recorded in documents.… …

Sociology: Encyclopedia Sociological reference book - a set of methodological techniques used to extract sociological information from documentary sources necessary for solving research problems. There are two main methods of document analysis: informal... ...

Technical Translator's Guide Sociological Dictionary Socium - English analysis, document; German Documentation analysis. Evaluation of various documents (diplomatic documents, policies, concepts, etc.) using formal methods of content analysis... Dictionary

Technical Translator's Guide in Sociology - – one of the main methods of conflictology, the study of documentary sources that reflect conflicts or their characteristics in order to obtain more reliable information about the object of study. Usually there are two main methods of AD: ... ...

Technical Translator's Guide Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy - a method of collecting primary data in which documents are used as the main source of information...

Great Accounting Dictionary

• Security of Russia. Risk analysis and safety management (Methodological recommendations), Nikolay Andreevich Makhutov, K. B. Pulikovsky, S. K. Shoigu. This issue was prepared as part of the multi-volume series "Russian Security. Legal, socio-economic and scientific-technical aspects", published by since 1998. In this volume"...

A document is the main means of consolidating information, facts, processes, phenomena, problems of reality or human mental activity, which is carried out using a special medium (most often paper). Documentary sources can contain very diverse and unique information about other phenomena.

Analysis of documents is necessary to reveal their main content. For this purpose, logical constructs, techniques and procedures are used that are best able to help extract the necessary information from the materials.

Often the information of interest to the researcher is present in documents in an implicit form, in a form and in such content that meets the goals of creating these papers, but this does not always coincide with the objectives of economic research. Document analysis is aimed at transforming the original information into the form that is necessary for the researcher to work.

Analysis of documents depends on many factors, including the following: conditions, tasks and goals of the research; the content of the text itself; qualifications and experience of the researcher, as well as the presence of creative intuition. The personality of the person doing the research also influences the result, since this method of studying sources is very subjective.

Competent interpretation of primary (and especially secondary) documents in order to extract target information from them is possible through the use of various data analysis methods.

The main ones are classical (traditional) and formalized (or content analysis). They differ significantly from each other, but do not exclude, but complement each other, compensating for the shortcomings of each individually, helping the economist (marketer or other specialist) obtain reliable information.

In most cases, the document analysis method is used when working with secondary documents of a socio-psychological nature.

Traditional document analysis, in essence, is a chain of logical mental constructions that are aimed at identifying the main content of the material under study from a specific point of view, interesting in a certain economic situation. Traditional analysis allows you to explore the material, finding the main ideas and thoughts, tracing their genesis, finding contradictions, evaluating them from the point of view of economic, marketing and other positions, etc. This type of research is able to cover the most significant, in-depth aspects of documents. The disadvantage of the method is its subjectivity.

There are external and internal traditional analysis. In the external case, the context of the document and the circumstances under which it appeared is examined, its type, form, place and time of compilation, the author and initiator of creation, goals, reliability, etc. are determined. In the internal case, the content of the document is analyzed: the level of reliability of figures and facts is revealed, the competence of the author, his attitude to the facts described, etc. are determined.

Some documents, due to their narrow specification, require the use of special analysis methods, such as legal, psychological and some others.

Formalized document analysis(compared to traditional) is aimed at overcoming subjectivity. This method is also called content analysis or quantitative method. In this case, the study reveals such properties and characteristics of the material that can illustrate the most significant features of the content. However, it must be borne in mind that not every material can be measured using formal indicators.

In content analysis, only quantitative parameters are used, so the disclosure of material cannot be exhaustively complete. With its help, you can draw conclusions, and the data obtained will always be general in nature. It is advisable to use this method in cases where high accuracy of analysis is required, if extensive material is being studied or details that frequently appear in materials are being studied.

Content analysis is used to identify text characteristics that best reflect the aspects of the object being studied; to assess the effect of the text on the audience; to find out the reasons that led to its creation.

Document analysis is one of the widely used and effective methods collection of primary information. Reflecting the spiritual and material life society, documents convey not only the eventual, factual side of social reality, but also record the development of all means of expression, and above all the structure of language.

They contain information about the processes and results of the activities of individuals, teams, population groups and society as a whole. Therefore, documentary information is of great interest to sociologists who, in the course of their research, study a huge number of different kinds of documents: state and government acts, statistical collections and census materials, departmental documents, works of art and scientific publications, the press, speeches of political leaders, letters from representatives of all segments of the population.

A sociologist encounters documents at the very beginning of the vast majority of research, regardless of the methods used to collect primary information. At this stage, documents, as a rule, do not represent an object of independent sociological research, but only an auxiliary source of information. This function can be performed by four groups of documents: statistical and verbal documents about the object of research, arrays of primary statistical information, protocols and transcripts, and personal documents.

In terms of auxiliary information, sources of information about the object of research are, first of all, documents containing either statistical information about it or its verbal characteristics; data from previous sociological studies on similar topic; analytical reports and other materials that can provide information for a deeper understanding of the problem under study, improving the quality of methodological tools, and the accuracy of the sampling model; serve as the basis for forming a sample population. Sources of such documentation can be state and departmental statistics bodies, various reference publications, documents stored in archives, libraries, etc. The information contained in these sources can also be used to check the stability of information obtained as a result of sociological research, for comparison, comparison or construction of time series of data distribution.

Arrays of primary statistical information or statistical reporting are stored both in official statistical departments and in various departments and institutions. These are forms with standardized industry information, quarterly and annual reports of enterprises in tax office, annual balance sheets of banks; population health data stored in medical institutions; crime records stored in law enforcement agencies, etc. With the exception of “authorized” cases (when research is ordered by the owners of the relevant documents, or other organizations that have access to them), such documents are difficult to access by the researcher.

Minutes and transcripts of court or arbitration sessions, investigations, meetings, individual characteristics of school psychologists for students and other similar documents can serve as a source of thematic soundings.

Due to the limited array of documents, they are usually not suitable for representative studies. In addition, these documents are not always available to the researcher due to their confidentiality.

Personal documents used for probing purposes - letters, diaries, autobiographies, etc. - also cannot always create a representative array for a full-scale study. In addition, access to personal documents is no less difficult than to protocols and transcripts.

Along with solving auxiliary tasks - collecting information about the object, the subject of research, clarifying the sampling model, methodological tools for collecting information - documents can form the source basis for independent sociological research. Document analysis as a search engine scientific method underlies two types of research: quantitative semantic analysis and the main method used in applied sociology - document content analysis. Before moving on to its detailed consideration, let us familiarize ourselves in general terms with the method of quantitative semantic analysis.

Types Applied sociology is primarily

documents looks at various printed and handwritten materials created for storing and transmitting information. With a broader approach, the documents also include television, film, photographic materials, sound recordings, etc.

There are a number of reasons for classifying documents. According to their status, documents are distinguished between official and unofficial; according to the form of presentation - written and (more widely - verbal), auditory, visual, audio-visual and statistical. According to their functional features, documents are divided into informational, regulatory, communicative and cultural-educational. Naturally, the main, leading focus of the document is emphasized, but most often it performs several functions simultaneously.

Of fundamental importance for the researcher are official documents - decisions of government bodies, departmental directives, orders and instructions from the administration of enterprises and institutions, which primarily reflect public relations and express collective points of view. They are compiled and approved by state or public bodies, collective or private institutions and can act as legal evidence. The main purpose of these documents is managerial. Their main function is to inform about the state of affairs and the achievement of certain intended goals.

Useful information for a systematic study and statistical synthesis of control over the activities of organizations is contained in the current work plans. Analysis of these materials in dynamics allows us to identify the role of various management actions in the organization of production, to detect and correct existing difficulties and shortcomings in work. The main purpose of this kind of documents is communicative and cultural, but at the same time they inform team members and regulate relations between them.

Studying informal documents can be of great benefit. Personal documents stand out among them. They are very valuable because they represent the almost unrestricted expressions of people on a freely chosen topic. Personal documents - diaries, memoirs, letters, family photo and film documents, archives, etc. - an indispensable source for studying public consciousness, opinions and attitudes at the individual level. They make it possible to reveal the deep social mechanisms of the formation of value orientations, to understand the historical conditionality of motives of behavior, and to find a basis for identifying social types of personality. Of particular importance are letters from the population to various government organizations and to the editorial offices of the media.

The most important source of documentary information is press materials, reflecting all aspects of society. Newspaper publications synthesize the features of documents of various types: “verbal,” digital and visual information, official messages, author’s speeches and letters from citizens, historical documents and reporting materials about the present.

Studying the language of publications can say a lot about the effectiveness of newspaper speeches. Thus, according to a study conducted within the framework of the Public Opinion project, up to 70% of readers of the Taganrogskaya Pravda newspaper incorrectly interpreted the content contained in publications on economic topics. key concepts: from 50% to 80% of readers demonstrated complete ignorance or erroneous interpretation of such words as: “democrat”, “monopoly”, “revenge”, “liberal”, “escalation”, etc. But these are the concepts that were most frequently encountered in speeches by foreign policy observers in central newspapers, radio and television.

Another basis for the typology of documents is their special purpose. There are documents created independently of the researcher and “targeted” documents, that is, prepared in strict accordance with the program and objectives of the sociological survey. The first group, naturally, includes all documents whose existence is neither directly nor indirectly determined by the technique of conducting sociological research (official documents related to the topic of research, statistical information, press materials, personal correspondence, etc.). The second group of documents includes: answers to open-ended questions in the questionnaire and interview texts, recordings of observations reflecting the opinions and behavior of respondents; certificates from official and public organizations, prepared on the initiative or order of researchers; statistical or verbal information collected and summarized in relation to a specific sociological study.

The information contained in documents is usually divided into primary and secondary. In the first case, we are talking about describing specific situations, about covering the activities of individuals or bodies. Secondary information is more generalized and analytical in nature; as a rule, it reflects deeper social connections.

Independent stages of document analysis - Selection, selection of sources of information and compilation -

documentation of a sample of materials to be studied and analyzed. The research program serves as the basis for these stages.

How to approach the selection of an array of documents for analysis? First of all, the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the sampling procedure are taken into account.

The quantitative side of the sample is determined primarily by the material and technical capabilities and organizational conditions of the research group. If sufficiently experienced, trained specialists can be involved in the selection and analysis of documents, if the timing of the research does not require the prompt implementation of all work, and modern computing tools can be used to process primary information, then, undoubtedly, it is necessary to increase the variety of information sources and increase the volume of sampling totality. In practice, however, you often have to think about the opposite, that is, about ways to reduce the amount of materials studied. General principle There is only one solution to this problem - concretization, clarification of the goals of document analysis.

The researcher has no right to succumb to the magic of the word “document”. Neither the seal nor the signatures on it guarantee the reliability of documentary information. Behind the text there are always people and their interests; their strengths and weaknesses are always reflected in the content of the document. Therefore, when starting work, they determine the reliability of the document itself and the accuracy of its content. It's about, firstly, about the authenticity of the source and its connection with the subject of research and secondly - about the truthfulness in the coverage of facts, the accuracy in the author’s transmission of the events he describes.

It happens that random errors reduce the reliability of the entire document or its individual sections: incorrect indication of dates and names, typo in the statistical material provided, unintentional “omission” of a series important details etc.

There are also systematic circumstances that negatively affect the quality of documentary information, for example, incorrect grouping techniques when compiling statistical documents.

A widely used tool that allows you to check the reliability and reliability of information and at the same time examine the content of documents is “external” and “internal” analysis. External analysis consists of studying the circumstances of the document’s origin, its historical and social context. Knowing the true state of affairs in the relevant sphere of social life, specific areas, in regions of the country, being familiar with the traditions of different social groups of the population, the sociologist will easily detect bias in coverage individual problems raised by some document authors. Internal analysis is the actual study of the content of the document, everything that is evidenced by the source text, and those objective processes and phenomena that it reports.

Types In all the variety of research applications

analysis of themes used in the study of documents,

There are two main types of documents: qualitative analysis (sometimes called traditional) and formalized, called content analysis. These two largely different approaches to the study of documentary information can, however, complement each other.

Qualitative analysis often serves as a prerequisite for subsequent formalized study of documents. As an independent method it acquires special meaning when studying unique documents: their number is always small and therefore there is no need for quantitative processing of information. In such cases, an in-depth logical study of the document’s content, the detection of possible “omissions,” and an assessment of the uniqueness of the author’s language and presentation style come to the fore.

The desire to avoid subjectivity as much as possible, the need for sociological study and generalization of a large amount of information, and the focus on the use of modern computer technology when processing the content of texts led to the development of a method of formalized, qualitative and quantitative study of documents (content analysis).

According to this method, the content of a text is defined as the totality of information and assessments contained in it, united into a certain integrity by a single concept or plan. Formalized document analysis deals with text, but is focused primarily on studying the reality behind it. We especially emphasize that extra-textual reality is not only events, facts, human relationships reflected in texts, but also the principles of selection of materials used in their preparation. In other words, for a researcher it can be equally important what is included in the content of the text and what is outside its framework. The procedure for formalized study of documents begins with the identification of two units of analysis: semantic (qualitative) and counting units. In this case, the main semantic unit should be social idea, a socially significant topic reflected in operational concepts. In the text it is expressed in different ways: in a word, a combination of words, a description. The purpose of the study is to find indicators that indicate the presence in a document of a topic that is significant for analysis and reveal the content of textual information. For example, when studying the role of a newspaper in the dissemination of technical knowledge, publications on this topic may include articles, essays, notes, photographs, which directly or indirectly, with varying degrees of reliability, talk about new achievements in the field of technology and technology.

The activity-based (problematic) approach turns out to be fruitful when analyzing texts. In this case, the entire text or part of it is considered as a description of a specific problem situation, which has its own “ characters” and talks about the relationship between them. In a formalized analysis of documents, the activity itself is comprehensively considered, and its subjects, the goals and motives of the actions they perform, the circumstances, the reasons that gave rise to the need for this or that activity are identified (inactivity is also a type of activity); the object of its direction. Such a “problematic” reading of the content of a collection of letters from the population or newspaper publications helps to overcome many difficulties caused by the variety of situations presented in them and the linguistic means used by different authors. When correlating the content of texts with the socio-demographic characteristics and vocabulary of their authors, the described method of document analysis opens up the widest and most favorable opportunities for the use of computers, allowing one to obtain interesting meaningful conclusions about the phenomena and processes reflected in documents.

A mandatory tool for formalized document analysis is a coding form. It is compiled in accordance with the scheme of operational concepts, contains units of analysis and all elements of describing the problem situation, and establishes a one-to-one correspondence between the vocabulary of the text and the codes on which computational operations are performed.

As an example, here is a fragment of a form that can be used to encode the information contained in a letter:

Documents can be classified on different grounds. In this case, the main criterion is the form in which information is recorded in it and its reliability. It depends on the form of the document for what purposes it can be used.

Depending on the method of recording information, they distinguish:

Written documents - all types of printed and handwritten products. For example, books, letters, press, statistical and other factual publications, etc.;

Phonetic, i.e. designed for auditory perception (radio, gramophone, tape, laser and computer audio recordings);

Iconographic documents, i.e. perceived visually (videos, photos, film documents, paintings, engravings, etc.).

Depending on the status of the source, documents are divided into:

Unofficial, i.e. those that are created individuals and are not official. Otherwise, they are also called documents of personal origin (as opposed to personal documents, which, as a rule, are official and verify the identity of their owner). These include personal letters, family albums, diaries, i.e. everything that is recorded by private individuals on their own initiative;

Official documents are created by legal or official (officials) persons of state or public organizations and are drawn up and certified properly. For example, in an institution, official documents include: 1) current, incoming and outgoing documentation; 2) periodic reporting documents - monthly, quarterly, annual certificates, reports; 3) statements; reports, reviews, reports that are not periodic; 4) archival documents permanent and temporary storage.

From the point of view of motivation for creation, documents are divided into:

Provoked (given), i.e. those that appeared as a result of performing some tasks. For example, schoolchildren’s essays on a given topic, videos sent to the competition “Your own director,” responses (letters, phone calls) for any competition, etc.;

Unprovoked (spontaneous) documents created regardless of any incentive. These include all documents of personal origin. Letters and appeals to various authorities, the media, personal correspondence, diaries, memoirs, notes in the margins of books, etc.

According to the criterion of indirectness, documents are:

Primary, created by a direct participant or eyewitness of the event (for unofficial documents), or fundamental official ( state laws, orders, etc.);

Secondary documents are created based on a generalization of the primary ones. These include reviews, abstracts, analytical reports, etc.

In sociology, it is customary to distinguish between two main types of document analysis:

♦ qualitative analysis, which is also called traditional;

♦ quantitative analysis, which by international classification called content analysis.

First way includes all the variety of operations associated with the selection and assessment of the quality of documents, the perception and interpretation of their content. This method is based on intuitive understanding, analysis and generalization of the content of documents, as well as on the logical basis of conclusions. A typical example of traditional intuitive document analysis is a sociologist reading literature on the problem being studied and presenting his conclusions in the form of a scientific review. Main limitation- the possibility of subjective biases of information due to the influence of the researcher’s attitudes and preferences that developed before the start of the analysis. Such influences may not be recognized and there are no strict criteria for their detection and assessment. To overcome such shortcomings, methods of formalized text analysis are used.

Content analysis(English: content analysis) - quantitative analysis of texts and text arrays for the purpose of subsequent meaningful interpretation of identified numerical patterns.

Content analysis is based on standardization of search procedures, determination of units of account in the content of the document being studied, which are individual words (terms, names of political figures, names of parties and movements, geographical names, etc.), judgments expressed in the form of sentences , paragraphs, text fragments, assessments, points of view, arguments, as well as different kinds publications (by topic, genre, types of authors, etc.).

1. construction and justification of a sample set of sources of text information;

3. definition of units of analysis - division of categories of analysis into more detailed concepts;

4. allocation of units of account - final division of units of analysis, i.e. exactly those elements appear that researchers will look for in the text;

5. construction of codifier tables containing all categories of analysis and the corresponding units of analysis of the set;

6. entering data into coding tables;

7. conducting cross-monitoring of the progress of the study;

8. intermediate calculation of results by type of document;

9. final analysis and conclusions.

Conducting content analysis must meet the following requirements:

- objectivity of the analysis, so that different researchers working using the same methodology with the same text obtain the same results;

- systematic analysis of the research object - the choice of messages for analysis should be based on strict formal characteristics, and not on the researcher’s personal biases;

- representativeness of the materials for analysis, so that conclusions drawn on the basis of selected source materials can be extended to all source materials;

- the correctness or incorrectness of quantitative analysis (frequency of use of certain text elements, correlation coefficients, etc.) should be verifiable in the language of mathematics.

Objectcontent analysis There may be copies of books, posters or leaflets, newspaper issues, films, public speeches, television and radio broadcasts, public and personal documents, journalistic interviews, answers to open-ended questions in questionnaires, etc.

The advantages of content analysis what should be included is that it shows what happens, how often, under what circumstances; provide ample opportunity for comparison. To the disadvantages- the difficulty of determining compliance with real trends; dependence of results on the source of information.

2) Analysis and processing of sociological research results

Sociological research ends with the analysis and processing of the data obtained, obtaining empirically based conclusions and recommendations.

The analysis stage represents the correlation of the received information about the object under study with the already existing amount of knowledge about it. The content and purpose of the analysis stage is to explain the meaning of individual results, combine and highlight generalizing provisions, and bring them into one system.

There are both quantitative and qualitative methods for analyzing and summarizing information obtained as a result of sociological research. Quantitative methods include: grouping, calculation of correlation coefficients, factor analysis. TO qualitative methods of analysis and generalization are typologization, modeling and theory creation. Data processing includes:

1. Editing and coding of information in order to unify and formalize the information obtained during the research.

2. Creating variables. The information collected on the basis of questionnaires in some cases directly answers the questions that need to be addressed in the study, since the questions received the form of indicators in the process of operationalization. It is necessary to carry out the reverse procedure - to translate the data into a form that would answer the research questions.

3. Statistical analysis is the most important stage in the process of analyzing sociological data. Statistical patterns and dependencies are identified that allow generalizations and conclusions to be made.